Life and Labour on Sugar Plantations

Le Balisier, Vallentin’s plantation, with its 75 slaves, is modest in size. Vallentin is only the co-owner, having acquired shares in it, and acts as a “géreur” – manager and intendant – on behalf of his associates. He lives on site with his wife, in the main house. The organisation of the slaves’ life and work at Le Balisier is typical of the way sugar plantations functioned, since the early 18th century. In addition to sugarcane, corn was also grown here to feed the livestock, which in turn contributed to the cultivation of the cane: oxen provided fertiliser, mules were used for transport… It corresponds perfectly to the model of the “Père Labat” type : an autonomous sugarcane plantation and factory, which produced all the cane it processed without any outside input.

Tasks and Duties

On the habitations, there were 3 categories of slaves: domestic servants (10%), workers and other specialised slaves (20%), and slaves “attached to the factory” (70%). Workers and specialised slaves have specific functions in the production process. The most important of these specialties is that of the refiner, responsible for the sugar-making process. Other slaves are also involved in the production process. These include, for example, sprinklers (to irrigate the cane pieces), “cabrouétiers” who transport the cane to the mill in their carts, mill drivers responsible for keeping the mill running properly, “chauffeurs” who feed the sugar mill furnaces, and coopers who make the barrels.

Other slaves performed functions that enabled the habitation to function almost autonomously: carpenters, joiners, pitsawyers, and on larger properties, ironworkers, carpenters and masons. The most numerous category was that of hoe Negroes or garden Negroes or factory Negroes, who carried out all unskilled cultivation and manufacturing work. Finally, certain functions were entrusted to elderly men, the infirm or children of around ten years of age: guardians of livestock, merchandise, etc.

At the Vallentin trial, some fifteen slaves were called to testify. Their functions and ages are not always mentioned, but we get a glimpse of the organisation of work at Le Balisier.

2 overseers were called to the stand: Louis, a devoted defender of his master, and Médéric, overseer of Bellevue, Vallentin’s associate, who also testified on Vallentin’s behalf.

Médéric, overseer.

All I’ve seen, all I know, is that Mr. Vallentin is a good master; I’ve never heard of him being mean.

We also note the intervention of two refiners, Charles and Mercure, who remain cautious in their statements.

Charles, refiner.

Vallentin was a very good master. He punished negroes when they deserved it. Louis applied, at most, 15 lashes; that was all.

Saint Jean, a 25-year-old “cabrouettier”, was a little more audacious in questioning Sébastien’s guilt.

Saint-Jean.

I knew Sébastien; he was a good negro; I don’t know if he was capable of giving poison to animals.

Adeline, Sebastien and their children apparently formed a hoe slave family. Despite adversity, they had 5 children together and formed a steady family.

The position of Adeline, Sébastien’s wife, is not specified, nor is her age. Nor that of her two sons: Réville aged 13 and Laurent aged 16. Similarly, nothing is said about Sébastien’s job before his master entrusted him with the care of the oxen.

Félicien was assigned to work as a carrier with the masons on his release from the dungeon. But, exhausted and made ill by his detention, he couldn’t stand this new task, even though it was presented as less hard than working in the fields.

Q. Did you see Félicien before he was put in solitary confinement ?

Jacob, 50, slave.

Yes, sir, he was a fine lad. But after he came out of the dungeon, he was skinny. He was employed by the masons, making mortar and carrying stones. This work was much less hard for him than that of the hoe. At least he could rest as much as he wanted, because until noon, the hoe has to work

We also note the presence of Mathilde, a hoe slave; Jean Pierre, aged 14, a hoe slave; and Toussaint, aged 13, an apprentice cooper. The presence of Fanchon, a midwife, is revealing: she is 80 years old. Her essential function, undoubtedly based on proven skills, must have softened her living conditions somewhat, enabling her to live to an exceptionally advanced age for a slave.

Living conditions

Slaves’ lives are dominated by work. They work from 11 to 12 hours a day, and even longer during the sugar harvest and production period, when they are sometimes required to “veillées” – meaning to work day and night – in very difficult conditions, for up to 40 hours at a time.

Slaves were often underfed. The food ration stipulated by the Code Noir consisted of 2 pounds of cod and two measures of manioc per week, invariably, all year round. This is notoriously insufficient for such intense physical activity, and too unbalanced to maintain health. Moreover, masters often don’t even provide this compulsory ration.

At the trial, Vallentin boasted that he was very generous with his slaves, and Louis went on to comment on the prodigality of his master, who was reputed to be a “negro spoiler”.

Vallentin.

Mr. Chairman, please ask Jacob if, when my negroes had no food, I didn’t bring in cod; if, in addition to the Saturday I gave them, I didn’t give each of them 3 or 4 pounds of cod a week and salt at will?

(…)

Mr. President, please ask the witness if I didn’t always take care of his children, if I didn’t order them to be served their meals exactly?

Charles, Refiner.

Yes, sir, my children have always had two meals a day, and you even had the nurse whipped 10 times for not giving them both.

Louis.

Mr Vallentin is a notorious Negro spoiler. All year round, every Tuesday of the week, they had cod and on Saturdays, syrup.

However, there are several references to petty theft in the fields by thirsty or hungry slaves.

Q. Did Louis ever gag you?

Toussaint, aged 13, apprentice cooper

Yes, because I had taken four canes; I was hungry. I wore it for a week. They left it on me at night. We also gagged St-Jean, Rémi, Félix and Etienne, to punish them for stealing corn, potatoes or yams, or eating cane

Similarly, the master, who must provide his slaves with a certain number of clothes each year, often avoids his obligations. Slaves go almost naked, and of course never wear shoes, which causes a lot of feet infections.

Exhaustion at work and precarious living conditions are often the cause of illness or early death. Average life expectancy in Guadeloupe is estimated at 26-27 years.

Resilience and resistance

Slaves can only improve their living conditions through their own labour. They may work one day a week in their garden, on a small plot of land left to them by their master, or they may sell part of their harvest or monetize their talents (linen maid, carpenter, cook, etc.) outside their exhausting working days. All have a “social life”, and some have a family, on or off the farm.

Here is how Sebastien is described by his fellows companions, sometimes a bit enviously:

Jacob

He was the best worker in the workshop, he worked as hard for him as if he had worked for a white man”.

François

He always looked mean, he always seemed to “hold” more than the others, he had the most beautiful garden.

Vallentin also deplores Sebastien attitude:

Vallentin

He had quite a nice garden, and when I had to work for him, he didn’t do anything, he had to be punished.

(…)

He was a good hoe worker. But for the cultivation of his private garden, he hired maroons with whom he had a regular relationship.

We can therefore imagine that part of Vallentin’s determination against him stems from the fact that Sébastien has managed to acquire a tiny shred of independence and, above all, pride and dignity. Moreover, he had relations with fugitive negroes, whom he put to work in his garden and undoubtedly supplied with food.

Resistance to the slave system was constant, from capture in Africa to the plantations, from the earliest days until abolition. Acts of subversion and marronage were numerous: escaping, slow work, idleness, feigning illness, organizing unauthorized festivities, self-mutilation, poisoning, sabotage, suicide, abortion…

Only violence and fear can keep these men and women in bondage. Constant fear of revolt and poisoning for the masters, fear of punishment for the slaves.